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<!-- doc/src/sgml/xfunc.sgml -->
<sect1 id="xfunc">
<title>User-Defined Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc">
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>user-defined</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides four kinds of
functions:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
query language functions (functions written in
<acronym>SQL</acronym>) (<xref linkend="xfunc-sql"/>)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
procedural language functions (functions written in, for
example, <application>PL/pgSQL</application> or <application>PL/Tcl</application>)
(<xref linkend="xfunc-pl"/>)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
internal functions (<xref linkend="xfunc-internal"/>)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
C-language functions (<xref linkend="xfunc-c"/>)
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
Every kind
of function can take base types, composite types, or
combinations of these as arguments (parameters). In addition,
every kind of function can return a base type or
a composite type. Functions can also be defined to return
sets of base or composite values.
</para>
<para>
Many kinds of functions can take or return certain pseudo-types
(such as polymorphic types), but the available facilities vary.
Consult the description of each kind of function for more details.
</para>
<para>
It's easiest to define <acronym>SQL</acronym>
functions, so we'll start by discussing those.
Most of the concepts presented for <acronym>SQL</acronym> functions
will carry over to the other types of functions.
</para>
<para>
Throughout this chapter, it can be useful to look at the reference
page of the <xref linkend="sql-createfunction"/> command to
understand the examples better. Some examples from this chapter
can be found in <filename>funcs.sql</filename> and
<filename>funcs.c</filename> in the <filename>src/tutorial</filename>
directory in the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> source
distribution.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xproc">
<title>User-Defined Procedures</title>
<indexterm zone="xproc">
<primary>procedure</primary>
<secondary>user-defined</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
A procedure is a database object similar to a function. The difference is
that a procedure does not return a value, so there is no return type
declaration. While a function is called as part of a query or DML
command, a procedure is called explicitly using
the <xref linkend="sql-call"/> statement.
</para>
<para>
The explanations on how to define user-defined functions in the rest of
this chapter apply to procedures as well, except that
the <xref linkend="sql-createprocedure"/> command is used instead, there is
no return type, and some other features such as strictness don't apply.
</para>
<para>
Collectively, functions and procedures are also known
as <firstterm>routines</firstterm><indexterm><primary>routine</primary></indexterm>.
There are commands such as <xref linkend="sql-alterroutine"/>
and <xref linkend="sql-droproutine"/> that can operate on functions and
procedures without having to know which kind it is. Note, however, that
there is no <literal>CREATE ROUTINE</literal> command.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-sql">
<title>Query Language (<acronym>SQL</acronym>) Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-sql">
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>user-defined</secondary>
<tertiary>in SQL</tertiary>
</indexterm>
<para>
SQL functions execute an arbitrary list of SQL statements, returning
the result of the last query in the list.
In the simple (non-set)
case, the first row of the last query's result will be returned.
(Bear in mind that <quote>the first row</quote> of a multirow
result is not well-defined unless you use <literal>ORDER BY</literal>.)
If the last query happens
to return no rows at all, the null value will be returned.
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, an SQL function can be declared to return a set (that is,
multiple rows) by specifying the function's return type as <literal>SETOF
<replaceable>sometype</replaceable></literal>, or equivalently by declaring it as
<literal>RETURNS TABLE(<replaceable>columns</replaceable>)</literal>. In this case
all rows of the last query's result are returned. Further details appear
below.
</para>
<para>
The body of an SQL function must be a list of SQL
statements separated by semicolons. A semicolon after the last
statement is optional. Unless the function is declared to return
<type>void</type>, the last statement must be a <command>SELECT</command>,
or an <command>INSERT</command>, <command>UPDATE</command>, or <command>DELETE</command>
that has a <literal>RETURNING</literal> clause.
</para>
<para>
Any collection of commands in the <acronym>SQL</acronym>
language can be packaged together and defined as a function.
Besides <command>SELECT</command> queries, the commands can include data
modification queries (<command>INSERT</command>,
<command>UPDATE</command>, and <command>DELETE</command>), as well as
other SQL commands. (You cannot use transaction control commands, e.g.
<command>COMMIT</command>, <command>SAVEPOINT</command>, and some utility
commands, e.g. <literal>VACUUM</literal>, in <acronym>SQL</acronym> functions.)
However, the final command
must be a <command>SELECT</command> or have a <literal>RETURNING</literal>
clause that returns whatever is
specified as the function's return type. Alternatively, if you
want to define a SQL function that performs actions but has no
useful value to return, you can define it as returning <type>void</type>.
For example, this function removes rows with negative salaries from
the <literal>emp</literal> table:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION clean_emp() RETURNS void AS '
DELETE FROM emp
WHERE salary &lt; 0;
' LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT clean_emp();
clean_emp
-----------
(1 row)
</screen>
</para>
<note>
<para>
The entire body of a SQL function is parsed before any of it is
executed. While a SQL function can contain commands that alter
the system catalogs (e.g., <command>CREATE TABLE</command>), the effects
of such commands will not be visible during parse analysis of
later commands in the function. Thus, for example,
<literal>CREATE TABLE foo (...); INSERT INTO foo VALUES(...);</literal>
will not work as desired if packaged up into a single SQL function,
since <structname>foo</structname> won't exist yet when the <command>INSERT</command>
command is parsed. It's recommended to use <application>PL/pgSQL</application>
instead of a SQL function in this type of situation.
</para>
</note>
<para>
The syntax of the <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command> command requires
the function body to be written as a string constant. It is usually
most convenient to use dollar quoting (see <xref
linkend="sql-syntax-dollar-quoting"/>) for the string constant.
If you choose to use regular single-quoted string constant syntax,
you must double single quote marks (<literal>'</literal>) and backslashes
(<literal>\</literal>) (assuming escape string syntax) in the body of
the function (see <xref linkend="sql-syntax-strings"/>).
</para>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-function-arguments">
<title>Arguments for <acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>named argument</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Arguments of a SQL function can be referenced in the function
body using either names or numbers. Examples of both methods appear
below.
</para>
<para>
To use a name, declare the function argument as having a name, and
then just write that name in the function body. If the argument name
is the same as any column name in the current SQL command within the
function, the column name will take precedence. To override this,
qualify the argument name with the name of the function itself, that is
<literal><replaceable>function_name</replaceable>.<replaceable>argument_name</replaceable></literal>.
(If this would conflict with a qualified column name, again the column
name wins. You can avoid the ambiguity by choosing a different alias for
the table within the SQL command.)
</para>
<para>
In the older numeric approach, arguments are referenced using the syntax
<literal>$<replaceable>n</replaceable></literal>: <literal>$1</literal> refers to the first input
argument, <literal>$2</literal> to the second, and so on. This will work
whether or not the particular argument was declared with a name.
</para>
<para>
If an argument is of a composite type, then the dot notation,
e.g., <literal><replaceable>argname</replaceable>.<replaceable>fieldname</replaceable></literal> or
<literal>$1.<replaceable>fieldname</replaceable></literal>, can be used to access attributes of the
argument. Again, you might need to qualify the argument's name with the
function name to make the form with an argument name unambiguous.
</para>
<para>
SQL function arguments can only be used as data values,
not as identifiers. Thus for example this is reasonable:
<programlisting>
INSERT INTO mytable VALUES ($1);
</programlisting>
but this will not work:
<programlisting>
INSERT INTO $1 VALUES (42);
</programlisting>
</para>
<note>
<para>
The ability to use names to reference SQL function arguments was added
in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 9.2. Functions to be used in
older servers must use the <literal>$<replaceable>n</replaceable></literal> notation.
</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-base-functions">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions on Base Types</title>
<para>
The simplest possible <acronym>SQL</acronym> function has no arguments and
simply returns a base type, such as <type>integer</type>:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION one() RETURNS integer AS $$
SELECT 1 AS result;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
-- Alternative syntax for string literal:
CREATE FUNCTION one() RETURNS integer AS '
SELECT 1 AS result;
' LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT one();
one
-----
1
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Notice that we defined a column alias within the function body for the result of the function
(with the name <literal>result</literal>), but this column alias is not visible
outside the function. Hence, the result is labeled <literal>one</literal>
instead of <literal>result</literal>.
</para>
<para>
It is almost as easy to define <acronym>SQL</acronym> functions
that take base types as arguments:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION add_em(x integer, y integer) RETURNS integer AS $$
SELECT x + y;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT add_em(1, 2) AS answer;
answer
--------
3
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Alternatively, we could dispense with names for the arguments and
use numbers:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION add_em(integer, integer) RETURNS integer AS $$
SELECT $1 + $2;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT add_em(1, 2) AS answer;
answer
--------
3
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Here is a more useful function, which might be used to debit a
bank account:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION tf1 (accountno integer, debit numeric) RETURNS numeric AS $$
UPDATE bank
SET balance = balance - debit
WHERE accountno = tf1.accountno;
SELECT 1;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
A user could execute this function to debit account 17 by $100.00 as
follows:
<programlisting>
SELECT tf1(17, 100.0);
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
In this example, we chose the name <literal>accountno</literal> for the first
argument, but this is the same as the name of a column in the
<literal>bank</literal> table. Within the <command>UPDATE</command> command,
<literal>accountno</literal> refers to the column <literal>bank.accountno</literal>,
so <literal>tf1.accountno</literal> must be used to refer to the argument.
We could of course avoid this by using a different name for the argument.
</para>
<para>
In practice one would probably like a more useful result from the
function than a constant 1, so a more likely definition
is:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION tf1 (accountno integer, debit numeric) RETURNS numeric AS $$
UPDATE bank
SET balance = balance - debit
WHERE accountno = tf1.accountno;
SELECT balance FROM bank WHERE accountno = tf1.accountno;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
which adjusts the balance and returns the new balance.
The same thing could be done in one command using <literal>RETURNING</literal>:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION tf1 (accountno integer, debit numeric) RETURNS numeric AS $$
UPDATE bank
SET balance = balance - debit
WHERE accountno = tf1.accountno
RETURNING balance;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
A <acronym>SQL</acronym> function must return exactly its declared
result type. This may require inserting an explicit cast.
For example, suppose we wanted the
previous <function>add_em</function> function to return
type <type>float8</type> instead. This won't work:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION add_em(integer, integer) RETURNS float8 AS $$
SELECT $1 + $2;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
even though in other contexts <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
would be willing to insert an implicit cast to
convert <type>integer</type> to <type>float8</type>.
We need to write it as
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION add_em(integer, integer) RETURNS float8 AS $$
SELECT ($1 + $2)::float8;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-composite-functions">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions on Composite Types</title>
<para>
When writing functions with arguments of composite types, we must not
only specify which argument we want but also the desired attribute
(field) of that argument. For example, suppose that
<type>emp</type> is a table containing employee data, and therefore
also the name of the composite type of each row of the table. Here
is a function <function>double_salary</function> that computes what someone's
salary would be if it were doubled:
<screen>
CREATE TABLE emp (
name text,
salary numeric,
age integer,
cubicle point
);
INSERT INTO emp VALUES ('Bill', 4200, 45, '(2,1)');
CREATE FUNCTION double_salary(emp) RETURNS numeric AS $$
SELECT $1.salary * 2 AS salary;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT name, double_salary(emp.*) AS dream
FROM emp
WHERE emp.cubicle ~= point '(2,1)';
name | dream
------+-------
Bill | 8400
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Notice the use of the syntax <literal>$1.salary</literal>
to select one field of the argument row value. Also notice
how the calling <command>SELECT</command> command
uses <replaceable>table_name</replaceable><literal>.*</literal> to select
the entire current row of a table as a composite value. The table
row can alternatively be referenced using just the table name,
like this:
<screen>
SELECT name, double_salary(emp) AS dream
FROM emp
WHERE emp.cubicle ~= point '(2,1)';
</screen>
but this usage is deprecated since it's easy to get confused.
(See <xref linkend="rowtypes-usage"/> for details about these
two notations for the composite value of a table row.)
</para>
<para>
Sometimes it is handy to construct a composite argument value
on-the-fly. This can be done with the <literal>ROW</literal> construct.
For example, we could adjust the data being passed to the function:
<screen>
SELECT name, double_salary(ROW(name, salary*1.1, age, cubicle)) AS dream
FROM emp;
</screen>
</para>
<para>
It is also possible to build a function that returns a composite type.
This is an example of a function
that returns a single <type>emp</type> row:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION new_emp() RETURNS emp AS $$
SELECT text 'None' AS name,
1000.0 AS salary,
25 AS age,
point '(2,2)' AS cubicle;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
In this example we have specified each of the attributes
with a constant value, but any computation
could have been substituted for these constants.
</para>
<para>
Note two important things about defining the function:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
The select list order in the query must be exactly the same as
that in which the columns appear in the table associated
with the composite type. (Naming the columns, as we did above,
is irrelevant to the system.)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
We must ensure each expression's type matches the corresponding
column of the composite type, inserting a cast if necessary.
Otherwise we'll get errors like this:
<screen>
<computeroutput>
ERROR: function declared to return emp returns varchar instead of text at column 1
</computeroutput>
</screen>
As with the base-type case, the function will not insert any casts
automatically.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
A different way to define the same function is:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION new_emp() RETURNS emp AS $$
SELECT ROW('None', 1000.0, 25, '(2,2)')::emp;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
Here we wrote a <command>SELECT</command> that returns just a single
column of the correct composite type. This isn't really better
in this situation, but it is a handy alternative in some cases
&mdash; for example, if we need to compute the result by calling
another function that returns the desired composite value.
Another example is that if we are trying to write a function that
returns a domain over composite, rather than a plain composite type,
it is always necessary to write it as returning a single column,
since there is no other way to produce a value that is exactly of
the domain type.
</para>
<para>
We could call this function directly either by using it in
a value expression:
<screen>
SELECT new_emp();
new_emp
--------------------------
(None,1000.0,25,"(2,2)")
</screen>
or by calling it as a table function:
<screen>
SELECT * FROM new_emp();
name | salary | age | cubicle
------+--------+-----+---------
None | 1000.0 | 25 | (2,2)
</screen>
The second way is described more fully in <xref
linkend="xfunc-sql-table-functions"/>.
</para>
<para>
When you use a function that returns a composite type,
you might want only one field (attribute) from its result.
You can do that with syntax like this:
<screen>
SELECT (new_emp()).name;
name
------
None
</screen>
The extra parentheses are needed to keep the parser from getting
confused. If you try to do it without them, you get something like this:
<screen>
SELECT new_emp().name;
ERROR: syntax error at or near "."
LINE 1: SELECT new_emp().name;
^
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Another option is to use functional notation for extracting an attribute:
<screen>
SELECT name(new_emp());
name
------
None
</screen>
As explained in <xref linkend="rowtypes-usage"/>, the field notation and
functional notation are equivalent.
</para>
<para>
Another way to use a function returning a composite type is to pass the
result to another function that accepts the correct row type as input:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION getname(emp) RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT $1.name;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT getname(new_emp());
getname
---------
None
(1 row)
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-output-parameters">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions with Output Parameters</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>output parameter</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
An alternative way of describing a function's results is to define it
with <firstterm>output parameters</firstterm>, as in this example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION add_em (IN x int, IN y int, OUT sum int)
AS 'SELECT x + y'
LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT add_em(3,7);
add_em
--------
10
(1 row)
</screen>
This is not essentially different from the version of <literal>add_em</literal>
shown in <xref linkend="xfunc-sql-base-functions"/>. The real value of
output parameters is that they provide a convenient way of defining
functions that return several columns. For example,
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION sum_n_product (x int, y int, OUT sum int, OUT product int)
AS 'SELECT x + y, x * y'
LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT * FROM sum_n_product(11,42);
sum | product
-----+---------
53 | 462
(1 row)
</screen>
What has essentially happened here is that we have created an anonymous
composite type for the result of the function. The above example has
the same end result as
<screen>
CREATE TYPE sum_prod AS (sum int, product int);
CREATE FUNCTION sum_n_product (int, int) RETURNS sum_prod
AS 'SELECT $1 + $2, $1 * $2'
LANGUAGE SQL;
</screen>
but not having to bother with the separate composite type definition
is often handy. Notice that the names attached to the output parameters
are not just decoration, but determine the column names of the anonymous
composite type. (If you omit a name for an output parameter, the
system will choose a name on its own.)
</para>
<para>
Notice that output parameters are not included in the calling argument
list when invoking such a function from SQL. This is because
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> considers only the input
parameters to define the function's calling signature. That means
also that only the input parameters matter when referencing the function
for purposes such as dropping it. We could drop the above function
with either of
<screen>
DROP FUNCTION sum_n_product (x int, y int, OUT sum int, OUT product int);
DROP FUNCTION sum_n_product (int, int);
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Parameters can be marked as <literal>IN</literal> (the default),
<literal>OUT</literal>, <literal>INOUT</literal>, or <literal>VARIADIC</literal>.
An <literal>INOUT</literal>
parameter serves as both an input parameter (part of the calling
argument list) and an output parameter (part of the result record type).
<literal>VARIADIC</literal> parameters are input parameters, but are treated
specially as described next.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-variadic-functions">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions with Variable Numbers of Arguments</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>variadic</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>variadic function</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<acronym>SQL</acronym> functions can be declared to accept
variable numbers of arguments, so long as all the <quote>optional</quote>
arguments are of the same data type. The optional arguments will be
passed to the function as an array. The function is declared by
marking the last parameter as <literal>VARIADIC</literal>; this parameter
must be declared as being of an array type. For example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION mleast(VARIADIC arr numeric[]) RETURNS numeric AS $$
SELECT min($1[i]) FROM generate_subscripts($1, 1) g(i);
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT mleast(10, -1, 5, 4.4);
mleast
--------
-1
(1 row)
</screen>
Effectively, all the actual arguments at or beyond the
<literal>VARIADIC</literal> position are gathered up into a one-dimensional
array, as if you had written
<screen>
SELECT mleast(ARRAY[10, -1, 5, 4.4]); -- doesn't work
</screen>
You can't actually write that, though &mdash; or at least, it will
not match this function definition. A parameter marked
<literal>VARIADIC</literal> matches one or more occurrences of its element
type, not of its own type.
</para>
<para>
Sometimes it is useful to be able to pass an already-constructed array
to a variadic function; this is particularly handy when one variadic
function wants to pass on its array parameter to another one. Also,
this is the only secure way to call a variadic function found in a schema
that permits untrusted users to create objects; see
<xref linkend="typeconv-func"/>. You can do this by
specifying <literal>VARIADIC</literal> in the call:
<screen>
SELECT mleast(VARIADIC ARRAY[10, -1, 5, 4.4]);
</screen>
This prevents expansion of the function's variadic parameter into its
element type, thereby allowing the array argument value to match
normally. <literal>VARIADIC</literal> can only be attached to the last
actual argument of a function call.
</para>
<para>
Specifying <literal>VARIADIC</literal> in the call is also the only way to
pass an empty array to a variadic function, for example:
<screen>
SELECT mleast(VARIADIC ARRAY[]::numeric[]);
</screen>
Simply writing <literal>SELECT mleast()</literal> does not work because a
variadic parameter must match at least one actual argument.
(You could define a second function also named <literal>mleast</literal>,
with no parameters, if you wanted to allow such calls.)
</para>
<para>
The array element parameters generated from a variadic parameter are
treated as not having any names of their own. This means it is not
possible to call a variadic function using named arguments (<xref
linkend="sql-syntax-calling-funcs"/>), except when you specify
<literal>VARIADIC</literal>. For example, this will work:
<screen>
SELECT mleast(VARIADIC arr =&gt; ARRAY[10, -1, 5, 4.4]);
</screen>
but not these:
<screen>
SELECT mleast(arr =&gt; 10);
SELECT mleast(arr =&gt; ARRAY[10, -1, 5, 4.4]);
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-parameter-defaults">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions with Default Values for Arguments</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>default values for arguments</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Functions can be declared with default values for some or all input
arguments. The default values are inserted whenever the function is
called with insufficiently many actual arguments. Since arguments
can only be omitted from the end of the actual argument list, all
parameters after a parameter with a default value have to have
default values as well. (Although the use of named argument notation
could allow this restriction to be relaxed, it's still enforced so that
positional argument notation works sensibly.) Whether or not you use it,
this capability creates a need for precautions when calling functions in
databases where some users mistrust other users; see
<xref linkend="typeconv-func"/>.
</para>
<para>
For example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION foo(a int, b int DEFAULT 2, c int DEFAULT 3)
RETURNS int
LANGUAGE SQL
AS $$
SELECT $1 + $2 + $3;
$$;
SELECT foo(10, 20, 30);
foo
-----
60
(1 row)
SELECT foo(10, 20);
foo
-----
33
(1 row)
SELECT foo(10);
foo
-----
15
(1 row)
SELECT foo(); -- fails since there is no default for the first argument
ERROR: function foo() does not exist
</screen>
The <literal>=</literal> sign can also be used in place of the
key word <literal>DEFAULT</literal>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-table-functions">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions as Table Sources</title>
<para>
All SQL functions can be used in the <literal>FROM</literal> clause of a query,
but it is particularly useful for functions returning composite types.
If the function is defined to return a base type, the table function
produces a one-column table. If the function is defined to return
a composite type, the table function produces a column for each attribute
of the composite type.
</para>
<para>
Here is an example:
<screen>
CREATE TABLE foo (fooid int, foosubid int, fooname text);
INSERT INTO foo VALUES (1, 1, 'Joe');
INSERT INTO foo VALUES (1, 2, 'Ed');
INSERT INTO foo VALUES (2, 1, 'Mary');
CREATE FUNCTION getfoo(int) RETURNS foo AS $$
SELECT * FROM foo WHERE fooid = $1;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT *, upper(fooname) FROM getfoo(1) AS t1;
fooid | foosubid | fooname | upper
-------+----------+---------+-------
1 | 1 | Joe | JOE
(1 row)
</screen>
As the example shows, we can work with the columns of the function's
result just the same as if they were columns of a regular table.
</para>
<para>
Note that we only got one row out of the function. This is because
we did not use <literal>SETOF</literal>. That is described in the next section.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-functions-returning-set">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions Returning Sets</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>with SETOF</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
When an SQL function is declared as returning <literal>SETOF
<replaceable>sometype</replaceable></literal>, the function's final
query is executed to completion, and each row it
outputs is returned as an element of the result set.
</para>
<para>
This feature is normally used when calling the function in the <literal>FROM</literal>
clause. In this case each row returned by the function becomes
a row of the table seen by the query. For example, assume that
table <literal>foo</literal> has the same contents as above, and we say:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION getfoo(int) RETURNS SETOF foo AS $$
SELECT * FROM foo WHERE fooid = $1;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT * FROM getfoo(1) AS t1;
</programlisting>
Then we would get:
<screen>
fooid | foosubid | fooname
-------+----------+---------
1 | 1 | Joe
1 | 2 | Ed
(2 rows)
</screen>
</para>
<para>
It is also possible to return multiple rows with the columns defined by
output parameters, like this:
<programlisting>
CREATE TABLE tab (y int, z int);
INSERT INTO tab VALUES (1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8);
CREATE FUNCTION sum_n_product_with_tab (x int, OUT sum int, OUT product int)
RETURNS SETOF record
AS $$
SELECT $1 + tab.y, $1 * tab.y FROM tab;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT * FROM sum_n_product_with_tab(10);
sum | product
-----+---------
11 | 10
13 | 30
15 | 50
17 | 70
(4 rows)
</programlisting>
The key point here is that you must write <literal>RETURNS SETOF record</literal>
to indicate that the function returns multiple rows instead of just one.
If there is only one output parameter, write that parameter's type
instead of <type>record</type>.
</para>
<para>
It is frequently useful to construct a query's result by invoking a
set-returning function multiple times, with the parameters for each
invocation coming from successive rows of a table or subquery. The
preferred way to do this is to use the <literal>LATERAL</literal> key word,
which is described in <xref linkend="queries-lateral"/>.
Here is an example using a set-returning function to enumerate
elements of a tree structure:
<screen>
SELECT * FROM nodes;
name | parent
-----------+--------
Top |
Child1 | Top
Child2 | Top
Child3 | Top
SubChild1 | Child1
SubChild2 | Child1
(6 rows)
CREATE FUNCTION listchildren(text) RETURNS SETOF text AS $$
SELECT name FROM nodes WHERE parent = $1
$$ LANGUAGE SQL STABLE;
SELECT * FROM listchildren('Top');
listchildren
--------------
Child1
Child2
Child3
(3 rows)
SELECT name, child FROM nodes, LATERAL listchildren(name) AS child;
name | child
--------+-----------
Top | Child1
Top | Child2
Top | Child3
Child1 | SubChild1
Child1 | SubChild2
(5 rows)
</screen>
This example does not do anything that we couldn't have done with a
simple join, but in more complex calculations the option to put
some of the work into a function can be quite convenient.
</para>
<para>
Functions returning sets can also be called in the select list
of a query. For each row that the query
generates by itself, the set-returning function is invoked, and an output
row is generated for each element of the function's result set.
The previous example could also be done with queries like
these:
<screen>
SELECT listchildren('Top');
listchildren
--------------
Child1
Child2
Child3
(3 rows)
SELECT name, listchildren(name) FROM nodes;
name | listchildren
--------+--------------
Top | Child1
Top | Child2
Top | Child3
Child1 | SubChild1
Child1 | SubChild2
(5 rows)
</screen>
In the last <command>SELECT</command>,
notice that no output row appears for <literal>Child2</literal>, <literal>Child3</literal>, etc.
This happens because <function>listchildren</function> returns an empty set
for those arguments, so no result rows are generated. This is the same
behavior as we got from an inner join to the function result when using
the <literal>LATERAL</literal> syntax.
</para>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s behavior for a set-returning function in a
query's select list is almost exactly the same as if the set-returning
function had been written in a <literal>LATERAL FROM</literal>-clause item
instead. For example,
<programlisting>
SELECT x, generate_series(1,5) AS g FROM tab;
</programlisting>
is almost equivalent to
<programlisting>
SELECT x, g FROM tab, LATERAL generate_series(1,5) AS g;
</programlisting>
It would be exactly the same, except that in this specific example,
the planner could choose to put <structname>g</structname> on the outside of the
nested-loop join, since <structname>g</structname> has no actual lateral dependency
on <structname>tab</structname>. That would result in a different output row
order. Set-returning functions in the select list are always evaluated
as though they are on the inside of a nested-loop join with the rest of
the <literal>FROM</literal> clause, so that the function(s) are run to
completion before the next row from the <literal>FROM</literal> clause is
considered.
</para>
<para>
If there is more than one set-returning function in the query's select
list, the behavior is similar to what you get from putting the functions
into a single <literal>LATERAL ROWS FROM( ... )</literal> <literal>FROM</literal>-clause
item. For each row from the underlying query, there is an output row
using the first result from each function, then an output row using the
second result, and so on. If some of the set-returning functions
produce fewer outputs than others, null values are substituted for the
missing data, so that the total number of rows emitted for one
underlying row is the same as for the set-returning function that
produced the most outputs. Thus the set-returning functions
run <quote>in lockstep</quote> until they are all exhausted, and then
execution continues with the next underlying row.
</para>
<para>
Set-returning functions can be nested in a select list, although that is
not allowed in <literal>FROM</literal>-clause items. In such cases, each level
of nesting is treated separately, as though it were
a separate <literal>LATERAL ROWS FROM( ... )</literal> item. For example, in
<programlisting>
SELECT srf1(srf2(x), srf3(y)), srf4(srf5(z)) FROM tab;
</programlisting>
the set-returning functions <function>srf2</function>, <function>srf3</function>,
and <function>srf5</function> would be run in lockstep for each row
of <structname>tab</structname>, and then <function>srf1</function> and <function>srf4</function>
would be applied in lockstep to each row produced by the lower
functions.
</para>
<para>
Set-returning functions cannot be used within conditional-evaluation
constructs, such as <literal>CASE</literal> or <literal>COALESCE</literal>. For
example, consider
<programlisting>
SELECT x, CASE WHEN x &gt; 0 THEN generate_series(1, 5) ELSE 0 END FROM tab;
</programlisting>
It might seem that this should produce five repetitions of input rows
that have <literal>x &gt; 0</literal>, and a single repetition of those that do
not; but actually, because <function>generate_series(1, 5)</function> would be
run in an implicit <literal>LATERAL FROM</literal> item before
the <literal>CASE</literal> expression is ever evaluated, it would produce five
repetitions of every input row. To reduce confusion, such cases produce
a parse-time error instead.
</para>
<note>
<para>
If a function's last command is <command>INSERT</command>, <command>UPDATE</command>,
or <command>DELETE</command> with <literal>RETURNING</literal>, that command will
always be executed to completion, even if the function is not declared
with <literal>SETOF</literal> or the calling query does not fetch all the
result rows. Any extra rows produced by the <literal>RETURNING</literal>
clause are silently dropped, but the commanded table modifications
still happen (and are all completed before returning from the function).
</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>
Before <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 10, putting more than one
set-returning function in the same select list did not behave very
sensibly unless they always produced equal numbers of rows. Otherwise,
what you got was a number of output rows equal to the least common
multiple of the numbers of rows produced by the set-returning
functions. Also, nested set-returning functions did not work as
described above; instead, a set-returning function could have at most
one set-returning argument, and each nest of set-returning functions
was run independently. Also, conditional execution (set-returning
functions inside <literal>CASE</literal> etc) was previously allowed,
complicating things even more.
Use of the <literal>LATERAL</literal> syntax is recommended when writing
queries that need to work in older <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> versions,
because that will give consistent results across different versions.
If you have a query that is relying on conditional execution of a
set-returning function, you may be able to fix it by moving the
conditional test into a custom set-returning function. For example,
<programlisting>
SELECT x, CASE WHEN y &gt; 0 THEN generate_series(1, z) ELSE 5 END FROM tab;
</programlisting>
could become
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION case_generate_series(cond bool, start int, fin int, els int)
RETURNS SETOF int AS $$
BEGIN
IF cond THEN
RETURN QUERY SELECT generate_series(start, fin);
ELSE
RETURN QUERY SELECT els;
END IF;
END$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
SELECT x, case_generate_series(y &gt; 0, 1, z, 5) FROM tab;
</programlisting>
This formulation will work the same in all versions
of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>.
</para>
</note>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-sql-functions-returning-table">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions Returning <literal>TABLE</literal></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>RETURNS TABLE</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
There is another way to declare a function as returning a set,
which is to use the syntax
<literal>RETURNS TABLE(<replaceable>columns</replaceable>)</literal>.
This is equivalent to using one or more <literal>OUT</literal> parameters plus
marking the function as returning <literal>SETOF record</literal> (or
<literal>SETOF</literal> a single output parameter's type, as appropriate).
This notation is specified in recent versions of the SQL standard, and
thus may be more portable than using <literal>SETOF</literal>.
</para>
<para>
For example, the preceding sum-and-product example could also be
done this way:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION sum_n_product_with_tab (x int)
RETURNS TABLE(sum int, product int) AS $$
SELECT $1 + tab.y, $1 * tab.y FROM tab;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
It is not allowed to use explicit <literal>OUT</literal> or <literal>INOUT</literal>
parameters with the <literal>RETURNS TABLE</literal> notation &mdash; you must
put all the output columns in the <literal>TABLE</literal> list.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Polymorphic <acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions</title>
<para>
<acronym>SQL</acronym> functions can be declared to accept and
return the polymorphic types <type>anyelement</type>,
<type>anyarray</type>, <type>anynonarray</type>,
<type>anyenum</type>, and <type>anyrange</type>. See <xref
linkend="extend-types-polymorphic"/> for a more detailed
explanation of polymorphic functions. Here is a polymorphic
function <function>make_array</function> that builds up an array
from two arbitrary data type elements:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION make_array(anyelement, anyelement) RETURNS anyarray AS $$
SELECT ARRAY[$1, $2];
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT make_array(1, 2) AS intarray, make_array('a'::text, 'b') AS textarray;
intarray | textarray
----------+-----------
{1,2} | {a,b}
(1 row)
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Notice the use of the typecast <literal>'a'::text</literal>
to specify that the argument is of type <type>text</type>. This is
required if the argument is just a string literal, since otherwise
it would be treated as type
<type>unknown</type>, and array of <type>unknown</type> is not a valid
type.
Without the typecast, you will get errors like this:
<screen>
<computeroutput>
ERROR: could not determine polymorphic type because input has type "unknown"
</computeroutput>
</screen>
</para>
<para>
It is permitted to have polymorphic arguments with a fixed
return type, but the converse is not. For example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION is_greater(anyelement, anyelement) RETURNS boolean AS $$
SELECT $1 &gt; $2;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT is_greater(1, 2);
is_greater
------------
f
(1 row)
CREATE FUNCTION invalid_func() RETURNS anyelement AS $$
SELECT 1;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
ERROR: cannot determine result data type
DETAIL: A function returning a polymorphic type must have at least one polymorphic argument.
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Polymorphism can be used with functions that have output arguments.
For example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION dup (f1 anyelement, OUT f2 anyelement, OUT f3 anyarray)
AS 'select $1, array[$1,$1]' LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT * FROM dup(22);
f2 | f3
----+---------
22 | {22,22}
(1 row)
</screen>
</para>
<para>
Polymorphism can also be used with variadic functions.
For example:
<screen>
CREATE FUNCTION anyleast (VARIADIC anyarray) RETURNS anyelement AS $$
SELECT min($1[i]) FROM generate_subscripts($1, 1) g(i);
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT anyleast(10, -1, 5, 4);
anyleast
----------
-1
(1 row)
SELECT anyleast('abc'::text, 'def');
anyleast
----------
abc
(1 row)
CREATE FUNCTION concat_values(text, VARIADIC anyarray) RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT array_to_string($2, $1);
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT concat_values('|', 1, 4, 2);
concat_values
---------------
1|4|2
(1 row)
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Functions with Collations</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>collation</primary>
<secondary>in SQL functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
When a SQL function has one or more parameters of collatable data types,
a collation is identified for each function call depending on the
collations assigned to the actual arguments, as described in <xref
linkend="collation"/>. If a collation is successfully identified
(i.e., there are no conflicts of implicit collations among the arguments)
then all the collatable parameters are treated as having that collation
implicitly. This will affect the behavior of collation-sensitive
operations within the function. For example, using the
<function>anyleast</function> function described above, the result of
<programlisting>
SELECT anyleast('abc'::text, 'ABC');
</programlisting>
will depend on the database's default collation. In <literal>C</literal> locale
the result will be <literal>ABC</literal>, but in many other locales it will
be <literal>abc</literal>. The collation to use can be forced by adding
a <literal>COLLATE</literal> clause to any of the arguments, for example
<programlisting>
SELECT anyleast('abc'::text, 'ABC' COLLATE "C");
</programlisting>
Alternatively, if you wish a function to operate with a particular
collation regardless of what it is called with, insert
<literal>COLLATE</literal> clauses as needed in the function definition.
This version of <function>anyleast</function> would always use <literal>en_US</literal>
locale to compare strings:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION anyleast (VARIADIC anyarray) RETURNS anyelement AS $$
SELECT min($1[i] COLLATE "en_US") FROM generate_subscripts($1, 1) g(i);
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
</programlisting>
But note that this will throw an error if applied to a non-collatable
data type.
</para>
<para>
If no common collation can be identified among the actual arguments,
then a SQL function treats its parameters as having their data types'
default collation (which is usually the database's default collation,
but could be different for parameters of domain types).
</para>
<para>
The behavior of collatable parameters can be thought of as a limited
form of polymorphism, applicable only to textual data types.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-overload">
<title>Function Overloading</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-overload">
<primary>overloading</primary>
<secondary>functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
More than one function can be defined with the same SQL name, so long
as the arguments they take are different. In other words,
function names can be <firstterm>overloaded</firstterm>. Whether or not
you use it, this capability entails security precautions when calling
functions in databases where some users mistrust other users; see
<xref linkend="typeconv-func"/>. When a query is executed, the server
will determine which function to call from the data types and the number
of the provided arguments. Overloading can also be used to simulate
functions with a variable number of arguments, up to a finite maximum
number.
</para>
<para>
When creating a family of overloaded functions, one should be
careful not to create ambiguities. For instance, given the
functions:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION test(int, real) RETURNS ...
CREATE FUNCTION test(smallint, double precision) RETURNS ...
</programlisting>
it is not immediately clear which function would be called with
some trivial input like <literal>test(1, 1.5)</literal>. The
currently implemented resolution rules are described in
<xref linkend="typeconv"/>, but it is unwise to design a system that subtly
relies on this behavior.
</para>
<para>
A function that takes a single argument of a composite type should
generally not have the same name as any attribute (field) of that type.
Recall that <literal><replaceable>attribute</replaceable>(<replaceable>table</replaceable>)</literal>
is considered equivalent
to <literal><replaceable>table</replaceable>.<replaceable>attribute</replaceable></literal>.
In the case that there is an
ambiguity between a function on a composite type and an attribute of
the composite type, the attribute will always be used. It is possible
to override that choice by schema-qualifying the function name
(that is, <literal><replaceable>schema</replaceable>.<replaceable>func</replaceable>(<replaceable>table</replaceable>)
</literal>) but it's better to
avoid the problem by not choosing conflicting names.
</para>
<para>
Another possible conflict is between variadic and non-variadic functions.
For instance, it is possible to create both <literal>foo(numeric)</literal> and
<literal>foo(VARIADIC numeric[])</literal>. In this case it is unclear which one
should be matched to a call providing a single numeric argument, such as
<literal>foo(10.1)</literal>. The rule is that the function appearing
earlier in the search path is used, or if the two functions are in the
same schema, the non-variadic one is preferred.
</para>
<para>
When overloading C-language functions, there is an additional
constraint: The C name of each function in the family of
overloaded functions must be different from the C names of all
other functions, either internal or dynamically loaded. If this
rule is violated, the behavior is not portable. You might get a
run-time linker error, or one of the functions will get called
(usually the internal one). The alternative form of the
<literal>AS</literal> clause for the SQL <command>CREATE
FUNCTION</command> command decouples the SQL function name from
the function name in the C source code. For instance:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION test(int) RETURNS int
AS '<replaceable>filename</replaceable>', 'test_1arg'
LANGUAGE C;
CREATE FUNCTION test(int, int) RETURNS int
AS '<replaceable>filename</replaceable>', 'test_2arg'
LANGUAGE C;
</programlisting>
The names of the C functions here reflect one of many possible conventions.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-volatility">
<title>Function Volatility Categories</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-volatility">
<primary>volatility</primary>
<secondary>functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-volatility">
<primary>VOLATILE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-volatility">
<primary>STABLE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-volatility">
<primary>IMMUTABLE</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Every function has a <firstterm>volatility</firstterm> classification, with
the possibilities being <literal>VOLATILE</literal>, <literal>STABLE</literal>, or
<literal>IMMUTABLE</literal>. <literal>VOLATILE</literal> is the default if the
<xref linkend="sql-createfunction"/>
command does not specify a category. The volatility category is a
promise to the optimizer about the behavior of the function:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
A <literal>VOLATILE</literal> function can do anything, including modifying
the database. It can return different results on successive calls with
the same arguments. The optimizer makes no assumptions about the
behavior of such functions. A query using a volatile function will
re-evaluate the function at every row where its value is needed.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A <literal>STABLE</literal> function cannot modify the database and is
guaranteed to return the same results given the same arguments
for all rows within a single statement. This category allows the
optimizer to optimize multiple calls of the function to a single
call. In particular, it is safe to use an expression containing
such a function in an index scan condition. (Since an index scan
will evaluate the comparison value only once, not once at each
row, it is not valid to use a <literal>VOLATILE</literal> function in an
index scan condition.)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
An <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> function cannot modify the database and is
guaranteed to return the same results given the same arguments forever.
This category allows the optimizer to pre-evaluate the function when
a query calls it with constant arguments. For example, a query like
<literal>SELECT ... WHERE x = 2 + 2</literal> can be simplified on sight to
<literal>SELECT ... WHERE x = 4</literal>, because the function underlying
the integer addition operator is marked <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
For best optimization results, you should label your functions with the
strictest volatility category that is valid for them.
</para>
<para>
Any function with side-effects <emphasis>must</emphasis> be labeled
<literal>VOLATILE</literal>, so that calls to it cannot be optimized away.
Even a function with no side-effects needs to be labeled
<literal>VOLATILE</literal> if its value can change within a single query;
some examples are <literal>random()</literal>, <literal>currval()</literal>,
<literal>timeofday()</literal>.
</para>
<para>
Another important example is that the <function>current_timestamp</function>
family of functions qualify as <literal>STABLE</literal>, since their values do
not change within a transaction.
</para>
<para>
There is relatively little difference between <literal>STABLE</literal> and
<literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> categories when considering simple interactive
queries that are planned and immediately executed: it doesn't matter
a lot whether a function is executed once during planning or once during
query execution startup. But there is a big difference if the plan is
saved and reused later. Labeling a function <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> when
it really isn't might allow it to be prematurely folded to a constant during
planning, resulting in a stale value being re-used during subsequent uses
of the plan. This is a hazard when using prepared statements or when
using function languages that cache plans (such as
<application>PL/pgSQL</application>).
</para>
<para>
For functions written in SQL or in any of the standard procedural
languages, there is a second important property determined by the
volatility category, namely the visibility of any data changes that have
been made by the SQL command that is calling the function. A
<literal>VOLATILE</literal> function will see such changes, a <literal>STABLE</literal>
or <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> function will not. This behavior is implemented
using the snapshotting behavior of MVCC (see <xref linkend="mvcc"/>):
<literal>STABLE</literal> and <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> functions use a snapshot
established as of the start of the calling query, whereas
<literal>VOLATILE</literal> functions obtain a fresh snapshot at the start of
each query they execute.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Functions written in C can manage snapshots however they want, but it's
usually a good idea to make C functions work this way too.
</para>
</note>
<para>
Because of this snapshotting behavior,
a function containing only <command>SELECT</command> commands can safely be
marked <literal>STABLE</literal>, even if it selects from tables that might be
undergoing modifications by concurrent queries.
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will execute all commands of a
<literal>STABLE</literal> function using the snapshot established for the
calling query, and so it will see a fixed view of the database throughout
that query.
</para>
<para>
The same snapshotting behavior is used for <command>SELECT</command> commands
within <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> functions. It is generally unwise to select
from database tables within an <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> function at all,
since the immutability will be broken if the table contents ever change.
However, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> does not enforce that you
do not do that.
</para>
<para>
A common error is to label a function <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> when its
results depend on a configuration parameter. For example, a function
that manipulates timestamps might well have results that depend on the
<xref linkend="guc-timezone"/> setting. For safety, such functions should
be labeled <literal>STABLE</literal> instead.
</para>
<note>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> requires that <literal>STABLE</literal>
and <literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> functions contain no SQL commands other
than <command>SELECT</command> to prevent data modification.
(This is not a completely bulletproof test, since such functions could
still call <literal>VOLATILE</literal> functions that modify the database.
If you do that, you will find that the <literal>STABLE</literal> or
<literal>IMMUTABLE</literal> function does not notice the database changes
applied by the called function, since they are hidden from its snapshot.)
</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-pl">
<title>Procedural Language Functions</title>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows user-defined functions
to be written in other languages besides SQL and C. These other
languages are generically called <firstterm>procedural
languages</firstterm> (<acronym>PL</acronym>s).
Procedural languages aren't built into the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server; they are offered
by loadable modules.
See <xref linkend="xplang"/> and following chapters for more
information.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-internal">
<title>Internal Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-internal"><primary>function</primary><secondary>internal</secondary></indexterm>
<para>
Internal functions are functions written in C that have been statically
linked into the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server.
The <quote>body</quote> of the function definition
specifies the C-language name of the function, which need not be the
same as the name being declared for SQL use.
(For reasons of backward compatibility, an empty body
is accepted as meaning that the C-language function name is the
same as the SQL name.)
</para>
<para>
Normally, all internal functions present in the
server are declared during the initialization of the database cluster
(see <xref linkend="creating-cluster"/>),
but a user could use <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command>
to create additional alias names for an internal function.
Internal functions are declared in <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command>
with language name <literal>internal</literal>. For instance, to
create an alias for the <function>sqrt</function> function:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION square_root(double precision) RETURNS double precision
AS 'dsqrt'
LANGUAGE internal
STRICT;
</programlisting>
(Most internal functions expect to be declared <quote>strict</quote>.)
</para>
<note>
<para>
Not all <quote>predefined</quote> functions are
<quote>internal</quote> in the above sense. Some predefined
functions are written in SQL.
</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-c">
<title>C-Language Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c">
<primary>function</primary>
<secondary>user-defined</secondary>
<tertiary>in C</tertiary>
</indexterm>
<para>
User-defined functions can be written in C (or a language that can
be made compatible with C, such as C++). Such functions are
compiled into dynamically loadable objects (also called shared
libraries) and are loaded by the server on demand. The dynamic
loading feature is what distinguishes <quote>C language</quote> functions
from <quote>internal</quote> functions &mdash; the actual coding conventions
are essentially the same for both. (Hence, the standard internal
function library is a rich source of coding examples for user-defined
C functions.)
</para>
<para>
Currently only one calling convention is used for C functions
(<quote>version 1</quote>). Support for that calling convention is
indicated by writing a <literal>PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1()</literal> macro
call for the function, as illustrated below.
</para>
<sect2 id="xfunc-c-dynload">
<title>Dynamic Loading</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>dynamic loading</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The first time a user-defined function in a particular
loadable object file is called in a session,
the dynamic loader loads that object file into memory so that the
function can be called. The <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command>
for a user-defined C function must therefore specify two pieces of
information for the function: the name of the loadable
object file, and the C name (link symbol) of the specific function to call
within that object file. If the C name is not explicitly specified then
it is assumed to be the same as the SQL function name.
</para>
<para>
The following algorithm is used to locate the shared object file
based on the name given in the <command>CREATE FUNCTION</command>
command:
<orderedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
If the name is an absolute path, the given file is loaded.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If the name starts with the string <literal>$libdir</literal>,
that part is replaced by the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> package
library directory
name, which is determined at build time.<indexterm><primary>$libdir</primary></indexterm>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If the name does not contain a directory part, the file is
searched for in the path specified by the configuration variable
<xref linkend="guc-dynamic-library-path"/>.<indexterm><primary>dynamic_library_path</primary></indexterm>
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Otherwise (the file was not found in the path, or it contains a
non-absolute directory part), the dynamic loader will try to
take the name as given, which will most likely fail. (It is
unreliable to depend on the current working directory.)
</para>
</listitem>
</orderedlist>
If this sequence does not work, the platform-specific shared
library file name extension (often <filename>.so</filename>) is
appended to the given name and this sequence is tried again. If
that fails as well, the load will fail.
</para>
<para>
It is recommended to locate shared libraries either relative to
<literal>$libdir</literal> or through the dynamic library path.
This simplifies version upgrades if the new installation is at a
different location. The actual directory that
<literal>$libdir</literal> stands for can be found out with the
command <literal>pg_config --pkglibdir</literal>.
</para>
<para>
The user ID the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server runs
as must be able to traverse the path to the file you intend to
load. Making the file or a higher-level directory not readable
and/or not executable by the <systemitem>postgres</systemitem>
user is a common mistake.
</para>
<para>
In any case, the file name that is given in the
<command>CREATE FUNCTION</command> command is recorded literally
in the system catalogs, so if the file needs to be loaded again
the same procedure is applied.
</para>
<note>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will not compile a C function
automatically. The object file must be compiled before it is referenced
in a <command>CREATE
FUNCTION</command> command. See <xref linkend="dfunc"/> for additional
information.
</para>
</note>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>magic block</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
To ensure that a dynamically loaded object file is not loaded into an
incompatible server, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> checks that the
file contains a <quote>magic block</quote> with the appropriate contents.
This allows the server to detect obvious incompatibilities, such as code
compiled for a different major version of
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>. To include a magic block,
write this in one (and only one) of the module source files, after having
included the header <filename>fmgr.h</filename>:
<programlisting>
PG_MODULE_MAGIC;
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
After it is used for the first time, a dynamically loaded object
file is retained in memory. Future calls in the same session to
the function(s) in that file will only incur the small overhead of
a symbol table lookup. If you need to force a reload of an object
file, for example after recompiling it, begin a fresh session.
</para>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>_PG_init</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>_PG_fini</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>library initialization function</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-dynload">
<primary>library finalization function</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Optionally, a dynamically loaded file can contain initialization and
finalization functions. If the file includes a function named
<function>_PG_init</function>, that function will be called immediately after
loading the file. The function receives no parameters and should
return void. If the file includes a function named
<function>_PG_fini</function>, that function will be called immediately before
unloading the file. Likewise, the function receives no parameters and
should return void. Note that <function>_PG_fini</function> will only be called
during an unload of the file, not during process termination.
(Presently, unloads are disabled and will never occur, but this may
change in the future.)
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-c-basetype">
<title>Base Types in C-Language Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-c-basetype">
<primary>data type</primary>
<secondary>internal organization</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
To know how to write C-language functions, you need to know how
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> internally represents base
data types and how they can be passed to and from functions.
Internally, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> regards a base
type as a <quote>blob of memory</quote>. The user-defined
functions that you define over a type in turn define the way that
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> can operate on it. That
is, <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will only store and
retrieve the data from disk and use your user-defined functions
to input, process, and output the data.
</para>
<para>
Base types can have one of three internal formats:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
pass by value, fixed-length
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
pass by reference, fixed-length
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
pass by reference, variable-length
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
By-value types can only be 1, 2, or 4 bytes in length
(also 8 bytes, if <literal>sizeof(Datum)</literal> is 8 on your machine).
You should be careful to define your types such that they will be the
same size (in bytes) on all architectures. For example, the
<literal>long</literal> type is dangerous because it is 4 bytes on some
machines and 8 bytes on others, whereas <type>int</type> type is 4 bytes
on most Unix machines. A reasonable implementation of the
<type>int4</type> type on Unix machines might be:
<programlisting>
/* 4-byte integer, passed by value */
typedef int int4;
</programlisting>
(The actual PostgreSQL C code calls this type <type>int32</type>, because
it is a convention in C that <type>int<replaceable>XX</replaceable></type>
means <replaceable>XX</replaceable> <emphasis>bits</emphasis>. Note
therefore also that the C type <type>int8</type> is 1 byte in size. The
SQL type <type>int8</type> is called <type>int64</type> in C. See also
<xref linkend="xfunc-c-type-table"/>.)
</para>
<para>
On the other hand, fixed-length types of any size can
be passed by-reference. For example, here is a sample
implementation of a <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> type:
<programlisting>
/* 16-byte structure, passed by reference */
typedef struct
{
double x, y;
} Point;
</programlisting>
Only pointers to such types can be used when passing
them in and out of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> functions.
To return a value of such a type, allocate the right amount of
memory with <literal>palloc</literal>, fill in the allocated memory,
and return a pointer to it. (Also, if you just want to return the
same value as one of your input arguments that's of the same data type,
you can skip the extra <literal>palloc</literal> and just return the
pointer to the input value.)
</para>
<para>
Finally, all variable-length types must also be passed
by reference. All variable-length types must begin
with an opaque length field of exactly 4 bytes, which will be set
by <symbol>SET_VARSIZE</symbol>; never set this field directly! All data to
be stored within that type must be located in the memory
immediately following that length field. The
length field contains the total length of the structure,
that is, it includes the size of the length field
itself.
</para>
<para>
Another important point is to avoid leaving any uninitialized bits
within data type values; for example, take care to zero out any
alignment padding bytes that might be present in structs. Without
this, logically-equivalent constants of your data type might be
seen as unequal by the planner, leading to inefficient (though not
incorrect) plans.
</para>
<warning>
<para>
<emphasis>Never</emphasis> modify the contents of a pass-by-reference input
value. If you do so you are likely to corrupt on-disk data, since
the pointer you are given might point directly into a disk buffer.
The sole exception to this rule is explained in
<xref linkend="xaggr"/>.
</para>
</warning>
<para>
As an example, we can define the type <type>text</type> as
follows:
<programlisting>
typedef struct {
int32 length;
char data[FLEXIBLE_ARRAY_MEMBER];
} text;
</programlisting>
The <literal>[FLEXIBLE_ARRAY_MEMBER]</literal> notation means that the actual
length of the data part is not specified by this declaration.
</para>
<para>
When manipulating
variable-length types, we must be careful to allocate
the correct amount of memory and set the length field correctly.
For example, if we wanted to store 40 bytes in a <structname>text</structname>
structure, we might use a code fragment like this:
<programlisting><![CDATA[
#include "postgres.h"
...
char buffer[40]; /* our source data */
...
text *destination = (text *) palloc(VARHDRSZ + 40);
SET_VARSIZE(destination, VARHDRSZ + 40);
memcpy(destination->data, buffer, 40);
...
]]>
</programlisting>
<literal>VARHDRSZ</literal> is the same as <literal>sizeof(int32)</literal>, but
it's considered good style to use the macro <literal>VARHDRSZ</literal>
to refer to the size of the overhead for a variable-length type.
Also, the length field <emphasis>must</emphasis> be set using the
<literal>SET_VARSIZE</literal> macro, not by simple assignment.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="xfunc-c-type-table"/> specifies which C type
corresponds to which SQL type when writing a C-language function
that uses a built-in type of <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>.
The <quote>Defined In</quote> column gives the header file that
needs to be included to get the type definition. (The actual
definition might be in a different file that is included by the
listed file. It is recommended that users stick to the defined
interface.) Note that you should always include
<filename>postgres.h</filename> first in any source file, because
it declares a number of things that you will need anyway.
</para>
<table tocentry="1" id="xfunc-c-type-table">
<title>Equivalent C Types for Built-in SQL Types</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>
SQL Type
</entry>
<entry>
C Type
</entry>
<entry>
Defined In
</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry><type>bool</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename> (maybe compiler built-in)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>box</type></entry>
<entry><type>BOX*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/geo_decls.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry><type>bytea*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>"char"</type></entry>
<entry><type>char</type></entry>
<entry>(compiler built-in)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>character</type></entry>
<entry><type>BpChar*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>cid</type></entry>
<entry><type>CommandId</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>date</type></entry>
<entry><type>DateADT</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/date.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>smallint</type> (<type>int2</type>)</entry>
<entry><type>int16</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>int2vector</type></entry>
<entry><type>int2vector*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>integer</type> (<type>int4</type>)</entry>
<entry><type>int32</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>real</type> (<type>float4</type>)</entry>
<entry><type>float4*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>double precision</type> (<type>float8</type>)</entry>
<entry><type>float8*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>interval</type></entry>
<entry><type>Interval*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>datatype/timestamp.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>lseg</type></entry>
<entry><type>LSEG*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/geo_decls.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry><type>Name</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>oid</type></entry>
<entry><type>Oid</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>oidvector</type></entry>
<entry><type>oidvector*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>path</type></entry>
<entry><type>PATH*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/geo_decls.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry><type>POINT*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/geo_decls.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>regproc</type></entry>
<entry><type>regproc</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry><type>text*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>tid</type></entry>
<entry><type>ItemPointer</type></entry>
<entry><filename>storage/itemptr.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>time</type></entry>
<entry><type>TimeADT</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/date.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>time with time zone</type></entry>
<entry><type>TimeTzADT</type></entry>
<entry><filename>utils/date.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>timestamp</type></entry>
<entry><type>Timestamp*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>datatype/timestamp.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>varchar</type></entry>
<entry><type>VarChar*</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><type>xid</type></entry>
<entry><type>TransactionId</type></entry>
<entry><filename>postgres.h</filename></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Now that we've gone over all of the possible structures
for base types, we can show some examples of real functions.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Version 1 Calling Conventions</title>
<para>
The version-1 calling convention relies on macros to suppress most
of the complexity of passing arguments and results. The C declaration
of a version-1 function is always:
<programlisting>
Datum funcname(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
</programlisting>
In addition, the macro call:
<programlisting>
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(funcname);
</programlisting>
must appear in the same source file. (Conventionally, it's
written just before the function itself.) This macro call is not
needed for <literal>internal</literal>-language functions, since
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> assumes that all internal functions
use the version-1 convention. It is, however, required for
dynamically-loaded functions.
</para>
<para>
In a version-1 function, each actual argument is fetched using a
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>
macro that corresponds to the argument's data type. In non-strict
functions there needs to be a previous check about argument null-ness
using <function>PG_ARGNULL_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>.
The result is returned using a
<function>PG_RETURN_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>
macro for the return type.
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>
takes as its argument the number of the function argument to
fetch, where the count starts at 0.
<function>PG_RETURN_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>
takes as its argument the actual value to return.
</para>
<para>
Here are some examples using the version-1 calling convention:
</para>
<programlisting><![CDATA[
#include "postgres.h"
#include <string.h>
#include "fmgr.h"
#include "utils/geo_decls.h"
PG_MODULE_MAGIC;
/* by value */
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(add_one);
Datum
add_one(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
int32 arg = PG_GETARG_INT32(0);
PG_RETURN_INT32(arg + 1);
}
/* by reference, fixed length */
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(add_one_float8);
Datum
add_one_float8(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
/* The macros for FLOAT8 hide its pass-by-reference nature. */
float8 arg = PG_GETARG_FLOAT8(0);
PG_RETURN_FLOAT8(arg + 1.0);
}
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(makepoint);
Datum
makepoint(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
/* Here, the pass-by-reference nature of Point is not hidden. */
Point *pointx = PG_GETARG_POINT_P(0);
Point *pointy = PG_GETARG_POINT_P(1);
Point *new_point = (Point *) palloc(sizeof(Point));
new_point->x = pointx->x;
new_point->y = pointy->y;
PG_RETURN_POINT_P(new_point);
}
/* by reference, variable length */
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(copytext);
Datum
copytext(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
text *t = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
/*
* VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR is the size of the struct in bytes, minus the
* VARHDRSZ or VARHDRSZ_SHORT of its header. Construct the copy with a
* full-length header.
*/
text *new_t = (text *) palloc(VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t) + VARHDRSZ);
SET_VARSIZE(new_t, VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t) + VARHDRSZ);
/*
* VARDATA is a pointer to the data region of the new struct. The source
* could be a short datum, so retrieve its data through VARDATA_ANY.
*/
memcpy((void *) VARDATA(new_t), /* destination */
(void *) VARDATA_ANY(t), /* source */
VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(t)); /* how many bytes */
PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(new_t);
}
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(concat_text);
Datum
concat_text(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
text *arg1 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(0);
text *arg2 = PG_GETARG_TEXT_PP(1);
int32 arg1_size = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg1);
int32 arg2_size = VARSIZE_ANY_EXHDR(arg2);
int32 new_text_size = arg1_size + arg2_size + VARHDRSZ;
text *new_text = (text *) palloc(new_text_size);
SET_VARSIZE(new_text, new_text_size);
memcpy(VARDATA(new_text), VARDATA_ANY(arg1), arg1_size);
memcpy(VARDATA(new_text) + arg1_size, VARDATA_ANY(arg2), arg2_size);
PG_RETURN_TEXT_P(new_text);
}
]]>
</programlisting>
<para>
Supposing that the above code has been prepared in file
<filename>funcs.c</filename> and compiled into a shared object,
we could define the functions to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
with commands like this:
</para>
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION add_one(integer) RETURNS integer
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'add_one'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
-- note overloading of SQL function name "add_one"
CREATE FUNCTION add_one(double precision) RETURNS double precision
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'add_one_float8'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
CREATE FUNCTION makepoint(point, point) RETURNS point
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'makepoint'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
CREATE FUNCTION copytext(text) RETURNS text
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'copytext'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
CREATE FUNCTION concat_text(text, text) RETURNS text
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'concat_text'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
</programlisting>
<para>
Here, <replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable> stands for the
directory of the shared library file (for instance the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> tutorial directory, which
contains the code for the examples used in this section).
(Better style would be to use just <literal>'funcs'</literal> in the
<literal>AS</literal> clause, after having added
<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable> to the search path. In any
case, we can omit the system-specific extension for a shared
library, commonly <literal>.so</literal>.)
</para>
<para>
Notice that we have specified the functions as <quote>strict</quote>,
meaning that
the system should automatically assume a null result if any input
value is null. By doing this, we avoid having to check for null inputs
in the function code. Without this, we'd have to check for null values
explicitly, using <function>PG_ARGISNULL()</function>.
</para>
<para>
At first glance, the version-1 coding conventions might appear to be just
pointless obscurantism, over using plain <literal>C</literal> calling
conventions. They do however allow to deal with <literal>NULL</literal>able
arguments/return values, and <quote>toasted</quote> (compressed or
out-of-line) values.
</para>
<para>
The macro <function>PG_ARGISNULL(<replaceable>n</replaceable>)</function>
allows a function to test whether each input is null. (Of course, doing
this is only necessary in functions not declared <quote>strict</quote>.)
As with the
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function> macros,
the input arguments are counted beginning at zero. Note that one
should refrain from executing
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function> until
one has verified that the argument isn't null.
To return a null result, execute <function>PG_RETURN_NULL()</function>;
this works in both strict and nonstrict functions.
</para>
<para>
Other options provided by the version-1 interface are two
variants of the
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>()</function>
macros. The first of these,
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>_COPY()</function>,
guarantees to return a copy of the specified argument that is
safe for writing into. (The normal macros will sometimes return a
pointer to a value that is physically stored in a table, which
must not be written to. Using the
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>_COPY()</function>
macros guarantees a writable result.)
The second variant consists of the
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable>_SLICE()</function>
macros which take three arguments. The first is the number of the
function argument (as above). The second and third are the offset and
length of the segment to be returned. Offsets are counted from
zero, and a negative length requests that the remainder of the
value be returned. These macros provide more efficient access to
parts of large values in the case where they have storage type
<quote>external</quote>. (The storage type of a column can be specified using
<literal>ALTER TABLE <replaceable>tablename</replaceable> ALTER
COLUMN <replaceable>colname</replaceable> SET STORAGE
<replaceable>storagetype</replaceable></literal>. <replaceable>storagetype</replaceable> is one of
<literal>plain</literal>, <literal>external</literal>, <literal>extended</literal>,
or <literal>main</literal>.)
</para>
<para>
Finally, the version-1 function call conventions make it possible
to return set results (<xref linkend="xfunc-c-return-set"/>) and
implement trigger functions (<xref linkend="triggers"/>) and
procedural-language call handlers (<xref
linkend="plhandler"/>). For more details
see <filename>src/backend/utils/fmgr/README</filename> in the
source distribution.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Writing Code</title>
<para>
Before we turn to the more advanced topics, we should discuss
some coding rules for <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
C-language functions. While it might be possible to load functions
written in languages other than C into
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, this is usually difficult
(when it is possible at all) because other languages, such as
C++, FORTRAN, or Pascal often do not follow the same calling
convention as C. That is, other languages do not pass argument
and return values between functions in the same way. For this
reason, we will assume that your C-language functions are
actually written in C.
</para>
<para>
The basic rules for writing and building C functions are as follows:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Use <literal>pg_config
--includedir-server</literal><indexterm><primary>pg_config</primary><secondary>with user-defined C functions</secondary></indexterm>
to find out where the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server header
files are installed on your system (or the system that your
users will be running on).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Compiling and linking your code so that it can be dynamically
loaded into <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> always
requires special flags. See <xref linkend="dfunc"/> for a
detailed explanation of how to do it for your particular
operating system.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Remember to define a <quote>magic block</quote> for your shared library,
as described in <xref linkend="xfunc-c-dynload"/>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
When allocating memory, use the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> functions
<function>palloc</function><indexterm><primary>palloc</primary></indexterm> and <function>pfree</function><indexterm><primary>pfree</primary></indexterm>
instead of the corresponding C library functions
<function>malloc</function> and <function>free</function>.
The memory allocated by <function>palloc</function> will be
freed automatically at the end of each transaction, preventing
memory leaks.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Always zero the bytes of your structures using <function>memset</function>
(or allocate them with <function>palloc0</function> in the first place).
Even if you assign to each field of your structure, there might be
alignment padding (holes in the structure) that contain
garbage values. Without this, it's difficult to
support hash indexes or hash joins, as you must pick out only
the significant bits of your data structure to compute a hash.
The planner also sometimes relies on comparing constants via
bitwise equality, so you can get undesirable planning results if
logically-equivalent values aren't bitwise equal.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Most of the internal <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
types are declared in <filename>postgres.h</filename>, while
the function manager interfaces
(<symbol>PG_FUNCTION_ARGS</symbol>, etc.) are in
<filename>fmgr.h</filename>, so you will need to include at
least these two files. For portability reasons it's best to
include <filename>postgres.h</filename> <emphasis>first</emphasis>,
before any other system or user header files. Including
<filename>postgres.h</filename> will also include
<filename>elog.h</filename> and <filename>palloc.h</filename>
for you.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Symbol names defined within object files must not conflict
with each other or with symbols defined in the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server executable. You
will have to rename your functions or variables if you get
error messages to this effect.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
</sect2>
&dfunc;
<sect2>
<title>Composite-Type Arguments</title>
<para>
Composite types do not have a fixed layout like C structures.
Instances of a composite type can contain null fields. In
addition, composite types that are part of an inheritance
hierarchy can have different fields than other members of the
same inheritance hierarchy. Therefore,
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a function
interface for accessing fields of composite types from C.
</para>
<para>
Suppose we want to write a function to answer the query:
<programlisting>
SELECT name, c_overpaid(emp, 1500) AS overpaid
FROM emp
WHERE name = 'Bill' OR name = 'Sam';
</programlisting>
Using the version-1 calling conventions, we can define
<function>c_overpaid</function> as:
<programlisting><![CDATA[
#include "postgres.h"
#include "executor/executor.h" /* for GetAttributeByName() */
PG_MODULE_MAGIC;
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(c_overpaid);
Datum
c_overpaid(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
HeapTupleHeader t = PG_GETARG_HEAPTUPLEHEADER(0);
int32 limit = PG_GETARG_INT32(1);
bool isnull;
Datum salary;
salary = GetAttributeByName(t, "salary", &isnull);
if (isnull)
PG_RETURN_BOOL(false);
/* Alternatively, we might prefer to do PG_RETURN_NULL() for null salary. */
PG_RETURN_BOOL(DatumGetInt32(salary) > limit);
}
]]>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<function>GetAttributeByName</function> is the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> system function that
returns attributes out of the specified row. It has
three arguments: the argument of type <type>HeapTupleHeader</type> passed
into
the function, the name of the desired attribute, and a
return parameter that tells whether the attribute
is null. <function>GetAttributeByName</function> returns a <type>Datum</type>
value that you can convert to the proper data type by using the
appropriate <function>DatumGet<replaceable>XXX</replaceable>()</function>
macro. Note that the return value is meaningless if the null flag is
set; always check the null flag before trying to do anything with the
result.
</para>
<para>
There is also <function>GetAttributeByNum</function>, which selects
the target attribute by column number instead of name.
</para>
<para>
The following command declares the function
<function>c_overpaid</function> in SQL:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION c_overpaid(emp, integer) RETURNS boolean
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'c_overpaid'
LANGUAGE C STRICT;
</programlisting>
Notice we have used <literal>STRICT</literal> so that we did not have to
check whether the input arguments were NULL.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Returning Rows (Composite Types)</title>
<para>
To return a row or composite-type value from a C-language
function, you can use a special API that provides macros and
functions to hide most of the complexity of building composite
data types. To use this API, the source file must include:
<programlisting>
#include "funcapi.h"
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
There are two ways you can build a composite data value (henceforth
a <quote>tuple</quote>): you can build it from an array of Datum values,
or from an array of C strings that can be passed to the input
conversion functions of the tuple's column data types. In either
case, you first need to obtain or construct a <structname>TupleDesc</structname>
descriptor for the tuple structure. When working with Datums, you
pass the <structname>TupleDesc</structname> to <function>BlessTupleDesc</function>,
and then call <function>heap_form_tuple</function> for each row. When working
with C strings, you pass the <structname>TupleDesc</structname> to
<function>TupleDescGetAttInMetadata</function>, and then call
<function>BuildTupleFromCStrings</function> for each row. In the case of a
function returning a set of tuples, the setup steps can all be done
once during the first call of the function.
</para>
<para>
Several helper functions are available for setting up the needed
<structname>TupleDesc</structname>. The recommended way to do this in most
functions returning composite values is to call:
<programlisting>
TypeFuncClass get_call_result_type(FunctionCallInfo fcinfo,
Oid *resultTypeId,
TupleDesc *resultTupleDesc)
</programlisting>
passing the same <literal>fcinfo</literal> struct passed to the calling function
itself. (This of course requires that you use the version-1
calling conventions.) <varname>resultTypeId</varname> can be specified
as <literal>NULL</literal> or as the address of a local variable to receive the
function's result type OID. <varname>resultTupleDesc</varname> should be the
address of a local <structname>TupleDesc</structname> variable. Check that the
result is <literal>TYPEFUNC_COMPOSITE</literal>; if so,
<varname>resultTupleDesc</varname> has been filled with the needed
<structname>TupleDesc</structname>. (If it is not, you can report an error along
the lines of <quote>function returning record called in context that
cannot accept type record</quote>.)
</para>
<tip>
<para>
<function>get_call_result_type</function> can resolve the actual type of a
polymorphic function result; so it is useful in functions that return
scalar polymorphic results, not only functions that return composites.
The <varname>resultTypeId</varname> output is primarily useful for functions
returning polymorphic scalars.
</para>
</tip>
<note>
<para>
<function>get_call_result_type</function> has a sibling
<function>get_expr_result_type</function>, which can be used to resolve the
expected output type for a function call represented by an expression
tree. This can be used when trying to determine the result type from
outside the function itself. There is also
<function>get_func_result_type</function>, which can be used when only the
function's OID is available. However these functions are not able
to deal with functions declared to return <structname>record</structname>, and
<function>get_func_result_type</function> cannot resolve polymorphic types,
so you should preferentially use <function>get_call_result_type</function>.
</para>
</note>
<para>
Older, now-deprecated functions for obtaining
<structname>TupleDesc</structname>s are:
<programlisting>
TupleDesc RelationNameGetTupleDesc(const char *relname)
</programlisting>
to get a <structname>TupleDesc</structname> for the row type of a named relation,
and:
<programlisting>
TupleDesc TypeGetTupleDesc(Oid typeoid, List *colaliases)
</programlisting>
to get a <structname>TupleDesc</structname> based on a type OID. This can
be used to get a <structname>TupleDesc</structname> for a base or
composite type. It will not work for a function that returns
<structname>record</structname>, however, and it cannot resolve polymorphic
types.
</para>
<para>
Once you have a <structname>TupleDesc</structname>, call:
<programlisting>
TupleDesc BlessTupleDesc(TupleDesc tupdesc)
</programlisting>
if you plan to work with Datums, or:
<programlisting>
AttInMetadata *TupleDescGetAttInMetadata(TupleDesc tupdesc)
</programlisting>
if you plan to work with C strings. If you are writing a function
returning set, you can save the results of these functions in the
<structname>FuncCallContext</structname> structure &mdash; use the
<structfield>tuple_desc</structfield> or <structfield>attinmeta</structfield> field
respectively.
</para>
<para>
When working with Datums, use:
<programlisting>
HeapTuple heap_form_tuple(TupleDesc tupdesc, Datum *values, bool *isnull)
</programlisting>
to build a <structname>HeapTuple</structname> given user data in Datum form.
</para>
<para>
When working with C strings, use:
<programlisting>
HeapTuple BuildTupleFromCStrings(AttInMetadata *attinmeta, char **values)
</programlisting>
to build a <structname>HeapTuple</structname> given user data
in C string form. <parameter>values</parameter> is an array of C strings,
one for each attribute of the return row. Each C string should be in
the form expected by the input function of the attribute data
type. In order to return a null value for one of the attributes,
the corresponding pointer in the <parameter>values</parameter> array
should be set to <symbol>NULL</symbol>. This function will need to
be called again for each row you return.
</para>
<para>
Once you have built a tuple to return from your function, it
must be converted into a <type>Datum</type>. Use:
<programlisting>
HeapTupleGetDatum(HeapTuple tuple)
</programlisting>
to convert a <structname>HeapTuple</structname> into a valid Datum. This
<type>Datum</type> can be returned directly if you intend to return
just a single row, or it can be used as the current return value
in a set-returning function.
</para>
<para>
An example appears in the next section.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="xfunc-c-return-set">
<title>Returning Sets</title>
<para>
There is also a special API that provides support for returning
sets (multiple rows) from a C-language function. A set-returning
function must follow the version-1 calling conventions. Also,
source files must include <filename>funcapi.h</filename>, as
above.
</para>
<para>
A set-returning function (<acronym>SRF</acronym>) is called
once for each item it returns. The <acronym>SRF</acronym> must
therefore save enough state to remember what it was doing and
return the next item on each call.
The structure <structname>FuncCallContext</structname> is provided to help
control this process. Within a function, <literal>fcinfo-&gt;flinfo-&gt;fn_extra</literal>
is used to hold a pointer to <structname>FuncCallContext</structname>
across calls.
<programlisting>
typedef struct FuncCallContext
{
/*
* Number of times we've been called before
*
* call_cntr is initialized to 0 for you by SRF_FIRSTCALL_INIT(), and
* incremented for you every time SRF_RETURN_NEXT() is called.
*/
uint64 call_cntr;
/*
* OPTIONAL maximum number of calls
*
* max_calls is here for convenience only and setting it is optional.
* If not set, you must provide alternative means to know when the
* function is done.
*/
uint64 max_calls;
/*
* OPTIONAL pointer to miscellaneous user-provided context information
*
* user_fctx is for use as a pointer to your own data to retain
* arbitrary context information between calls of your function.
*/
void *user_fctx;
/*
* OPTIONAL pointer to struct containing attribute type input metadata
*
* attinmeta is for use when returning tuples (i.e., composite data types)
* and is not used when returning base data types. It is only needed
* if you intend to use BuildTupleFromCStrings() to create the return
* tuple.
*/
AttInMetadata *attinmeta;
/*
* memory context used for structures that must live for multiple calls
*
* multi_call_memory_ctx is set by SRF_FIRSTCALL_INIT() for you, and used
* by SRF_RETURN_DONE() for cleanup. It is the most appropriate memory
* context for any memory that is to be reused across multiple calls
* of the SRF.
*/
MemoryContext multi_call_memory_ctx;
/*
* OPTIONAL pointer to struct containing tuple description
*
* tuple_desc is for use when returning tuples (i.e., composite data types)
* and is only needed if you are going to build the tuples with
* heap_form_tuple() rather than with BuildTupleFromCStrings(). Note that
* the TupleDesc pointer stored here should usually have been run through
* BlessTupleDesc() first.
*/
TupleDesc tuple_desc;
} FuncCallContext;
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
An <acronym>SRF</acronym> uses several functions and macros that
automatically manipulate the <structname>FuncCallContext</structname>
structure (and expect to find it via <literal>fn_extra</literal>). Use:
<programlisting>
SRF_IS_FIRSTCALL()
</programlisting>
to determine if your function is being called for the first or a
subsequent time. On the first call (only) use:
<programlisting>
SRF_FIRSTCALL_INIT()
</programlisting>
to initialize the <structname>FuncCallContext</structname>. On every function call,
including the first, use:
<programlisting>
SRF_PERCALL_SETUP()
</programlisting>
to properly set up for using the <structname>FuncCallContext</structname>
and clearing any previously returned data left over from the
previous pass.
</para>
<para>
If your function has data to return, use:
<programlisting>
SRF_RETURN_NEXT(funcctx, result)
</programlisting>
to return it to the caller. (<literal>result</literal> must be of type
<type>Datum</type>, either a single value or a tuple prepared as
described above.) Finally, when your function is finished
returning data, use:
<programlisting>
SRF_RETURN_DONE(funcctx)
</programlisting>
to clean up and end the <acronym>SRF</acronym>.
</para>
<para>
The memory context that is current when the <acronym>SRF</acronym> is called is
a transient context that will be cleared between calls. This means
that you do not need to call <function>pfree</function> on everything
you allocated using <function>palloc</function>; it will go away anyway. However, if you want to allocate
any data structures to live across calls, you need to put them somewhere
else. The memory context referenced by
<structfield>multi_call_memory_ctx</structfield> is a suitable location for any
data that needs to survive until the <acronym>SRF</acronym> is finished running. In most
cases, this means that you should switch into
<structfield>multi_call_memory_ctx</structfield> while doing the first-call setup.
</para>
<warning>
<para>
While the actual arguments to the function remain unchanged between
calls, if you detoast the argument values (which is normally done
transparently by the
<function>PG_GETARG_<replaceable>xxx</replaceable></function> macro)
in the transient context then the detoasted copies will be freed on
each cycle. Accordingly, if you keep references to such values in
your <structfield>user_fctx</structfield>, you must either copy them into the
<structfield>multi_call_memory_ctx</structfield> after detoasting, or ensure
that you detoast the values only in that context.
</para>
</warning>
<para>
A complete pseudo-code example looks like the following:
<programlisting>
Datum
my_set_returning_function(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
FuncCallContext *funcctx;
Datum result;
<replaceable>further declarations as needed</replaceable>
if (SRF_IS_FIRSTCALL())
{
MemoryContext oldcontext;
funcctx = SRF_FIRSTCALL_INIT();
oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(funcctx-&gt;multi_call_memory_ctx);
/* One-time setup code appears here: */
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
<replaceable>if returning composite</replaceable>
<replaceable>build TupleDesc, and perhaps AttInMetadata</replaceable>
<replaceable>endif returning composite</replaceable>
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
}
/* Each-time setup code appears here: */
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
funcctx = SRF_PERCALL_SETUP();
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
/* this is just one way we might test whether we are done: */
if (funcctx-&gt;call_cntr &lt; funcctx-&gt;max_calls)
{
/* Here we want to return another item: */
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
<replaceable>obtain result Datum</replaceable>
SRF_RETURN_NEXT(funcctx, result);
}
else
{
/* Here we are done returning items and just need to clean up: */
<replaceable>user code</replaceable>
SRF_RETURN_DONE(funcctx);
}
}
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
A complete example of a simple <acronym>SRF</acronym> returning a composite type
looks like:
<programlisting><![CDATA[
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(retcomposite);
Datum
retcomposite(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
FuncCallContext *funcctx;
int call_cntr;
int max_calls;
TupleDesc tupdesc;
AttInMetadata *attinmeta;
/* stuff done only on the first call of the function */
if (SRF_IS_FIRSTCALL())
{
MemoryContext oldcontext;
/* create a function context for cross-call persistence */
funcctx = SRF_FIRSTCALL_INIT();
/* switch to memory context appropriate for multiple function calls */
oldcontext = MemoryContextSwitchTo(funcctx->multi_call_memory_ctx);
/* total number of tuples to be returned */
funcctx->max_calls = PG_GETARG_UINT32(0);
/* Build a tuple descriptor for our result type */
if (get_call_result_type(fcinfo, NULL, &tupdesc) != TYPEFUNC_COMPOSITE)
ereport(ERROR,
(errcode(ERRCODE_FEATURE_NOT_SUPPORTED),
errmsg("function returning record called in context "
"that cannot accept type record")));
/*
* generate attribute metadata needed later to produce tuples from raw
* C strings
*/
attinmeta = TupleDescGetAttInMetadata(tupdesc);
funcctx->attinmeta = attinmeta;
MemoryContextSwitchTo(oldcontext);
}
/* stuff done on every call of the function */
funcctx = SRF_PERCALL_SETUP();
call_cntr = funcctx->call_cntr;
max_calls = funcctx->max_calls;
attinmeta = funcctx->attinmeta;
if (call_cntr < max_calls) /* do when there is more left to send */
{
char **values;
HeapTuple tuple;
Datum result;
/*
* Prepare a values array for building the returned tuple.
* This should be an array of C strings which will
* be processed later by the type input functions.
*/
values = (char **) palloc(3 * sizeof(char *));
values[0] = (char *) palloc(16 * sizeof(char));
values[1] = (char *) palloc(16 * sizeof(char));
values[2] = (char *) palloc(16 * sizeof(char));
snprintf(values[0], 16, "%d", 1 * PG_GETARG_INT32(1));
snprintf(values[1], 16, "%d", 2 * PG_GETARG_INT32(1));
snprintf(values[2], 16, "%d", 3 * PG_GETARG_INT32(1));
/* build a tuple */
tuple = BuildTupleFromCStrings(attinmeta, values);
/* make the tuple into a datum */
result = HeapTupleGetDatum(tuple);
/* clean up (this is not really necessary) */
pfree(values[0]);
pfree(values[1]);
pfree(values[2]);
pfree(values);
SRF_RETURN_NEXT(funcctx, result);
}
else /* do when there is no more left */
{
SRF_RETURN_DONE(funcctx);
}
}
]]>
</programlisting>
One way to declare this function in SQL is:
<programlisting>
CREATE TYPE __retcomposite AS (f1 integer, f2 integer, f3 integer);
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION retcomposite(integer, integer)
RETURNS SETOF __retcomposite
AS '<replaceable>filename</replaceable>', 'retcomposite'
LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT;
</programlisting>
A different way is to use OUT parameters:
<programlisting>
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION retcomposite(IN integer, IN integer,
OUT f1 integer, OUT f2 integer, OUT f3 integer)
RETURNS SETOF record
AS '<replaceable>filename</replaceable>', 'retcomposite'
LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE STRICT;
</programlisting>
Notice that in this method the output type of the function is formally
an anonymous <structname>record</structname> type.
</para>
<para>
The directory <link linkend="tablefunc"><filename>contrib/tablefunc</filename></link>
module in the source distribution contains more examples of
set-returning functions.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Polymorphic Arguments and Return Types</title>
<para>
C-language functions can be declared to accept and
return the polymorphic types
<type>anyelement</type>, <type>anyarray</type>, <type>anynonarray</type>,
<type>anyenum</type>, and <type>anyrange</type>.
See <xref linkend="extend-types-polymorphic"/> for a more detailed explanation
of polymorphic functions. When function arguments or return types
are defined as polymorphic types, the function author cannot know
in advance what data type it will be called with, or
need to return. There are two routines provided in <filename>fmgr.h</filename>
to allow a version-1 C function to discover the actual data types
of its arguments and the type it is expected to return. The routines are
called <literal>get_fn_expr_rettype(FmgrInfo *flinfo)</literal> and
<literal>get_fn_expr_argtype(FmgrInfo *flinfo, int argnum)</literal>.
They return the result or argument type OID, or <symbol>InvalidOid</symbol> if the
information is not available.
The structure <literal>flinfo</literal> is normally accessed as
<literal>fcinfo-&gt;flinfo</literal>. The parameter <literal>argnum</literal>
is zero based. <function>get_call_result_type</function> can also be used
as an alternative to <function>get_fn_expr_rettype</function>.
There is also <function>get_fn_expr_variadic</function>, which can be used to
find out whether variadic arguments have been merged into an array.
This is primarily useful for <literal>VARIADIC "any"</literal> functions,
since such merging will always have occurred for variadic functions
taking ordinary array types.
</para>
<para>
For example, suppose we want to write a function to accept a single
element of any type, and return a one-dimensional array of that type:
<programlisting>
PG_FUNCTION_INFO_V1(make_array);
Datum
make_array(PG_FUNCTION_ARGS)
{
ArrayType *result;
Oid element_type = get_fn_expr_argtype(fcinfo-&gt;flinfo, 0);
Datum element;
bool isnull;
int16 typlen;
bool typbyval;
char typalign;
int ndims;
int dims[MAXDIM];
int lbs[MAXDIM];
if (!OidIsValid(element_type))
elog(ERROR, "could not determine data type of input");
/* get the provided element, being careful in case it's NULL */
isnull = PG_ARGISNULL(0);
if (isnull)
element = (Datum) 0;
else
element = PG_GETARG_DATUM(0);
/* we have one dimension */
ndims = 1;
/* and one element */
dims[0] = 1;
/* and lower bound is 1 */
lbs[0] = 1;
/* get required info about the element type */
get_typlenbyvalalign(element_type, &amp;typlen, &amp;typbyval, &amp;typalign);
/* now build the array */
result = construct_md_array(&amp;element, &amp;isnull, ndims, dims, lbs,
element_type, typlen, typbyval, typalign);
PG_RETURN_ARRAYTYPE_P(result);
}
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The following command declares the function
<function>make_array</function> in SQL:
<programlisting>
CREATE FUNCTION make_array(anyelement) RETURNS anyarray
AS '<replaceable>DIRECTORY</replaceable>/funcs', 'make_array'
LANGUAGE C IMMUTABLE;
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
There is a variant of polymorphism that is only available to C-language
functions: they can be declared to take parameters of type
<literal>"any"</literal>. (Note that this type name must be double-quoted,
since it's also a SQL reserved word.) This works like
<type>anyelement</type> except that it does not constrain different
<literal>"any"</literal> arguments to be the same type, nor do they help
determine the function's result type. A C-language function can also
declare its final parameter to be <literal>VARIADIC "any"</literal>. This will
match one or more actual arguments of any type (not necessarily the same
type). These arguments will <emphasis>not</emphasis> be gathered into an array
as happens with normal variadic functions; they will just be passed to
the function separately. The <function>PG_NARGS()</function> macro and the
methods described above must be used to determine the number of actual
arguments and their types when using this feature. Also, users of such
a function might wish to use the <literal>VARIADIC</literal> keyword in their
function call, with the expectation that the function would treat the
array elements as separate arguments. The function itself must implement
that behavior if wanted, after using <function>get_fn_expr_variadic</function> to
detect that the actual argument was marked with <literal>VARIADIC</literal>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Shared Memory and LWLocks</title>
<para>
Add-ins can reserve LWLocks and an allocation of shared memory on server
startup. The add-in's shared library must be preloaded by specifying
it in
<xref linkend="guc-shared-preload-libraries"/><indexterm><primary>shared_preload_libraries</primary></indexterm>.
Shared memory is reserved by calling:
<programlisting>
void RequestAddinShmemSpace(int size)
</programlisting>
from your <function>_PG_init</function> function.
</para>
<para>
LWLocks are reserved by calling:
<programlisting>
void RequestNamedLWLockTranche(const char *tranche_name, int num_lwlocks)
</programlisting>
from <function>_PG_init</function>. This will ensure that an array of
<literal>num_lwlocks</literal> LWLocks is available under the name
<literal>tranche_name</literal>. Use <function>GetNamedLWLockTranche</function>
to get a pointer to this array.
</para>
<para>
To avoid possible race-conditions, each backend should use the LWLock
<function>AddinShmemInitLock</function> when connecting to and initializing
its allocation of shared memory, as shown here:
<programlisting>
static mystruct *ptr = NULL;
if (!ptr)
{
bool found;
LWLockAcquire(AddinShmemInitLock, LW_EXCLUSIVE);
ptr = ShmemInitStruct("my struct name", size, &amp;found);
if (!found)
{
initialize contents of shmem area;
acquire any requested LWLocks using:
ptr->locks = GetNamedLWLockTranche("my tranche name");
}
LWLockRelease(AddinShmemInitLock);
}
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="extend-cpp">
<title>Using C++ for Extensibility</title>
<indexterm zone="extend-cpp">
<primary>C++</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Although the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> backend is written in
C, it is possible to write extensions in C++ if these guidelines are
followed:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
All functions accessed by the backend must present a C interface
to the backend; these C functions can then call C++ functions.
For example, <literal>extern C</literal> linkage is required for
backend-accessed functions. This is also necessary for any
functions that are passed as pointers between the backend and
C++ code.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Free memory using the appropriate deallocation method. For example,
most backend memory is allocated using <function>palloc()</function>, so use
<function>pfree()</function> to free it. Using C++
<function>delete</function> in such cases will fail.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Prevent exceptions from propagating into the C code (use a catch-all
block at the top level of all <literal>extern C</literal> functions). This
is necessary even if the C++ code does not explicitly throw any
exceptions, because events like out-of-memory can still throw
exceptions. Any exceptions must be caught and appropriate errors
passed back to the C interface. If possible, compile C++ with
<option>-fno-exceptions</option> to eliminate exceptions entirely; in such
cases, you must check for failures in your C++ code, e.g. check for
NULL returned by <function>new()</function>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If calling backend functions from C++ code, be sure that the
C++ call stack contains only plain old data structures
(<acronym>POD</acronym>). This is necessary because backend errors
generate a distant <function>longjmp()</function> that does not properly
unroll a C++ call stack with non-POD objects.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
In summary, it is best to place C++ code behind a wall of
<literal>extern C</literal> functions that interface to the backend,
and avoid exception, memory, and call stack leakage.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="xfunc-optimization">
<title>Function Optimization Information</title>
<indexterm zone="xfunc-optimization">
<primary>optimization information</primary>
<secondary>for functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
By default, a function is just a <quote>black box</quote> that the
database system knows very little about the behavior of. However,
that means that queries using the function may be executed much less
efficiently than they could be. It is possible to supply additional
knowledge that helps the planner optimize function calls.
</para>
<para>
Some basic facts can be supplied by declarative annotations provided in
the <xref linkend="sql-createfunction"/> command. Most important of
these is the function's <link linkend="xfunc-volatility">volatility
category</link> (<literal>IMMUTABLE</literal>, <literal>STABLE</literal>,
or <literal>VOLATILE</literal>); one should always be careful to
specify this correctly when defining a function.
The parallel safety property (<literal>PARALLEL
UNSAFE</literal>, <literal>PARALLEL RESTRICTED</literal>, or
<literal>PARALLEL SAFE</literal>) must also be specified if you hope
to use the function in parallelized queries.
It can also be useful to specify the function's estimated execution
cost, and/or the number of rows a set-returning function is estimated
to return. However, the declarative way of specifying those two
facts only allows specifying a constant value, which is often
inadequate.
</para>
<para>
It is also possible to attach a <firstterm>planner support
function</firstterm> to a SQL-callable function (called
its <firstterm>target function</firstterm>), and thereby provide
knowledge about the target function that is too complex to be
represented declaratively. Planner support functions have to be
written in C (although their target functions might not be), so this is
an advanced feature that relatively few people will use.
</para>
<para>
A planner support function must have the SQL signature
<programlisting>
supportfn(internal) returns internal
</programlisting>
It is attached to its target function by specifying
the <literal>SUPPORT</literal> clause when creating the target function.
</para>
<para>
The details of the API for planner support functions can be found in
file <filename>src/include/nodes/supportnodes.h</filename> in the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> source code. Here we provide
just an overview of what planner support functions can do.
The set of possible requests to a support function is extensible,
so more things might be possible in future versions.
</para>
<para>
Some function calls can be simplified during planning based on
properties specific to the function. For example,
<literal>int4mul(n, 1)</literal> could be simplified to
just <literal>n</literal>. This type of transformation can be
performed by a planner support function, by having it implement
the <literal>SupportRequestSimplify</literal> request type.
The support function will be called for each instance of its target
function found in a query parse tree. If it finds that the particular
call can be simplified into some other form, it can build and return a
parse tree representing that expression. This will automatically work
for operators based on the function, too &mdash; in the example just
given, <literal>n * 1</literal> would also be simplified to
<literal>n</literal>.
(But note that this is just an example; this particular
optimization is not actually performed by
standard <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>.)
We make no guarantee that <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will
never call the target function in cases that the support function could
simplify. Ensure rigorous equivalence between the simplified
expression and an actual execution of the target function.
</para>
<para>
For target functions that return <type>boolean</type>, it is often useful to estimate
the fraction of rows that will be selected by a <literal>WHERE</literal> clause using that
function. This can be done by a support function that implements
the <literal>SupportRequestSelectivity</literal> request type.
</para>
<para>
If the target function's run time is highly dependent on its inputs,
it may be useful to provide a non-constant cost estimate for it.
This can be done by a support function that implements
the <literal>SupportRequestCost</literal> request type.
</para>
<para>
For target functions that return sets, it is often useful to provide
a non-constant estimate for the number of rows that will be returned.
This can be done by a support function that implements
the <literal>SupportRequestRows</literal> request type.
</para>
<para>
For target functions that return <type>boolean</type>, it may be possible to
convert a function call appearing in <literal>WHERE</literal> into an indexable operator
clause or clauses. The converted clauses might be exactly equivalent
to the function's condition, or they could be somewhat weaker (that is,
they might accept some values that the function condition does not).
In the latter case the index condition is said to
be <firstterm>lossy</firstterm>; it can still be used to scan an index,
but the function call will have to be executed for each row returned by
the index to see if it really passes the <literal>WHERE</literal> condition or not.
To create such conditions, the support function must implement
the <literal>SupportRequestIndexCondition</literal> request type.
</para>
</sect1>
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